It is a common misconception that crime often stems from moral failures or mental health challenges. In reality, the topic is not so straightforward. Crime is nuanced by nature, which is why criminology and criminal justice continue to evolve — shaped, in part, by breakthroughs in sociological and psychological research and by broader shifts in societal values and social behavior.
Criminology includes several ways of explaining why crime occurs and how society should respond. These approaches are often grouped into schools of thought, theories, and frameworks — and understanding the distinction between them matters
Schools of criminological thought, such as the classical and positivist schools, reflect broad assumptions about human behavior, moral responsibility, and the purpose of criminal justice. They also influence how societies respond to crime — whether through punitive measures, rehabilitation, or restorative justice programs. Theories, including social disorganization, strain, and differential association, offer more specific explanations for patterns of crime and criminal behavior. Frameworks provide broader conceptual tools for interpreting those patterns and guiding research, policy, and practice.
Understanding these distinctions can support more informed and ethical approaches to prevention, intervention, policy, and leadership in criminal justice. To that end, we have highlighted several influential schools and theories of criminology. These underpin Keiser University’s PhD and DCJ curricula, equipping students to apply them in policy and leadership roles.
1. Classical School of Criminology (18th Century)
One of the most well-known schools of criminological thought is classical criminology. Often described as utilitarian, it reflects the belief that criminal offenders are rational individuals who weigh possible consequences against anticipated benefits.
Historical Origins of Classical Criminology
Classical criminology emerged during the Enlightenment era. More specifically, it is linked to Cesare Beccaria, who decried the use of torture and favored proportional punishments. At the time, it represented a progressive reaction to the harsh punishments imposed by former justice systems.
Modern Applications of the Classical School
The core ideas that originally shaped the classical school of criminology continue to inform our attitudes towards crime and criminal justice. For example, proportionality in sentencing remains a priority. Furthermore, several newer schools and theories of criminology expand on the ideas originally proposed by classical theorists. For example, routine activity theory (which we will discuss below) highlights the influence of rational decision-making.
2. Positivist School of Criminology (19th Century)
Positivism suggests that our reality is inherently quantifiable, and that knowledge is best gained through observed study as opposed to speculation. Auguste Comte laid the groundwork, synthesizing diverse intellectual notions to shape empirical evaluations of societal trends. From there, Cesare Lombroso brought positivism to the study of criminal behavior, applying scientific methods to help uncover the root causes of crime.
Biological and Psychological Explanations of Crime
Positivist criminology suggests that crime cannot exclusively be explained in the context of the person committing the act. Rather, crime stems from factors that extend beyond free will. Examples include biological factors (such as genetic predispositions), psychological factors (such as personality traits or trauma responses) or social factors (such as poverty or high crime rates).
How Positivist Theory Influences Rehabilitation Today
Positivism has evolved beyond biological determinism to integrate biopsychosocial models in some circles, in part because Cesare Lombroso drew heavily on pseudosciences such as phrenology and physiognomy, as well as the eugenics movement.
Still, ideas captured through the positivist school hold value in modern rehabilitation. They suggest that by understanding the root causes of crime, we can move beyond an exclusive reliance on punishment and develop programs that emphasize treatment and prevention. For example, drug courts can limit recidivism by addressing mental health challenges and substance abuse via counseling.
3. Social Disorganization Theory
Emphasizing the influence of environmental conditions and social structures, social disorganization theory suggests that crime will be more prevalent in areas with high instability and poorly run institutions. Crime may also be exacerbated by family factors such as intergenerational conflict.
Sociologists Clifford Shaw and Henry D. McKay — key members of the Chicago School of Sociology — developed this crime theory in response to a 1929 study of 60,000 young men who were registered as truants and offenders. They concluded that crime was strongly tied to specific neighborhoods as opposed to just individual traits.
Community Breakdown and Crime Rates
Social disorganization theory suggests that crime becomes more common if social institutions are underrepresented in their communities — or if they lack the resources or respect needed to shape community norms and values. According to proponents of this theory, a lack of social cohesion leaves community members unable to effectively advocate for or enforce desired behaviors, thereby leading to higher crime rates.
Modern Crime Prevention Through Community Investment
Many of the most inspiring crime prevention success stories from the past century found influence in social disorganization theory. The Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), for instance, revealed a pathway to preventing crime through community investment. This program prioritized early childhood education, parenting workshops and family counseling to reduce crime throughout Central Harlem.
4. Strain Theory (Anomie Theory)
Strain theory offers a sociological explanation for why some people are more likely to commit crimes, focusing on what can happen when cultural goals and values feel out of reach due to limited legitimate opportunities to achieve what society considers success.
What Is Strain Theory in Criminology?
French sociologist Émile Durkheim famously described the state of “anomie,” involving limited behavior guidance in response to a “sudden collapse of social norms.” This idea formed the foundation for strain theory, in which American sociologist Robert K. Merton identified a gap between dominant cultural values and legitimate opportunities for pursuing them.
Merton’s theory also referenced five main responses to strain: conformity (accepting goals and approved options for achieving them), innovation (using unconventional strategies to achieve societal goals), ritualism (scaling down ambitions but adhering to accepted strategies), retreatism (rejecting goals and strategies to achieve them, thereby opting out of society) and rebellion (replacing existing goals and means with new ones).
General Strain Theory and Modern Criminal Behavior
Criminologist Robert Agnew expanded on the concept of strain theory to reveal how numerous forms of strain could prompt negative emotional states, which, in turn, could prompt individuals to seek coping mechanisms that might involve criminal activities.
Agnew believed that strain was more likely to lead to criminal activity when individuals regarded strains as unjust and excessive — or when they held weak connections to family or institutions.
5. Differential Association Theory
While the schools and theories described above attempt to explain the root causes of crime, they do not fully explain how people absorb the thought processes associated with criminal behavior or learn how to carry out criminal acts.
This is where developmental insights enter the picture, expanding our understanding of how, under certain conditions, some people might adopt attitudes or values (and learn skills or behaviors) that allow them to engage in criminal behavior.
What Is Differential Association Theory?
Revealing how individuals can absorb the attitudes or motives that underscore crime, differential association theory suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who already engage in those behaviors.
Proposed by Edwin Sutherland, this theory offers a compelling argument for how the frequency, duration, and intensity of certain interactions can shape an individual’s participation in criminal activity over time.
Applications in Juvenile Justice and Rehabilitation
Differential association theory shapes our contemporary understanding of juvenile justice, suggesting that criminal behavior can be prevented (and recidivism can be reduced) by better shaping the social environments that influence youth. Programs such as Safer Foundation, for example, offer robust re-entry support so that former offenders are continually exposed to positive influences.
Deepen Your Criminal Justice Knowledge and Expand Your Impact
Achieving meaningful change within the criminal justice system begins with understanding the complex interplay of social, economic, and developmental factors that determine why crime occurs and how communities are affected.
Transform understanding into action with Keiser’s Master of Arts in Criminal Justice (MACJ) program or Doctorate of Criminal Justice. You can even contribute to the field’s body of knowledge by seeking a Doctor of Philosophy in Criminal Justice. We also offer accessible interdisciplinary options that can help expand your career opportunities. Contact a graduate admissions counselor to learn more.
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About the Contributing Author: Dr. Frederick W. Turner II University Department Chair/Program Director – Criminal Justice & Homeland Security 20+ years of combined experience in academia & military |
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| Dr. Turner is the Chair and Professor of Criminal Justice and Homeland Security at Keiser University’s Graduate School in Fort Lauderdale, FL. He holds a Ph.D. in Criminal Justice and a Doctor of Public Administration, with research interests including police militarization, homeland security, public administration, border security, and transnational crime. | ||
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After experiencing profound personal loss, Sydney Nau found her purpose in nursing. Today, she leads with compassion while advancing her education and transforming lives through patient-centered care.
